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New Petition: ATTACK ON CENTER OF ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE

 
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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 11:55 am    Post subject: New Petition: ATTACK ON CENTER OF ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE Reply with quote



ATTACK ON CENTER OF ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE

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To: All Free World Leaders

Tehran University is the oldest and largest scientific, educational and research centre of Iran which is referred to as “Mother University” and it is considered as the symbol of higher education. Tehran University is considered as one of the pioneers of the society in important scientific, cultural, political and social affairs. It is such that besides its old role in political and social changes of the country, its remarkable impact in the scientific-cultural development of the society is also undeniable.

Tehran University was established in 1934 although the history of University in Iran dates back to the year 1851 where a polytechnic, known locally as "Darolfonoon", aiming at training and teaching Iranian experts on many fields of sciences.

Over the years Tehran University has produced and offered to the society many distinguished technocrats and intellectuals. Until the revolt of 1979 Tehran University was held in high esteem by most of the highly respected Universities in the world and its qualifications were highly respected and valued. Today a number of highly respected academic posts outside Iran and in USA in particular are occupied by the ex-graduates of Tehran University.

In an unprecedented move, the newly appointed government of Ahmadi-Nezhad and with a great deal of haste has appointed a cleric as the new chief of the University. The new chancellor is Ayatollah Amid Zanjani, a notorious religious prosecutor in the 1980s.

Never before in its glorious history has Tehran University been subjected to such humiliation of a having imposed on it a Chancellor with no academic background. The newly imposed Chancellor's only credential, other than a high school diploma, is the theological teaching he has received in religious school known as Madreseh.

Tehran University students have been so outraged and angered at this insult that they have resorted to massive demonstrations and are demanding the resignation of the newly imposed Chancellor. They are also planning many more demonstration in the very near future.

The choice of such a chancellor has no reason other than to control the only remaining relatively free establishment left in the country. By this appointment the government of Ahmadi-Nezhad hopes to smother any remaining opposition to its reactionary plans.

Iran of Tomorrow Movement (IOTM), whose members are all University educated and technocrats, considers its duty to oppose such unprecedented move and the appointment as Chancellor of such an unworthy individual with such notorious background.

IOTM considers this move as an assault on the academic world and an insult to the educated people of the world and Tehran University in particular.

Therefore, we request from all the University students all over the world to show your solidarity with Tehran University student and by voicing your concern and bewilderment and anger against the appointment of a notorious religious prosecutor as the Chancellor of a highly respected academic institution.

Please give us your support and demonstrate your anger by being vocal and by supporting our petition against this appointment.




Sincerely,


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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 4:11 pm    Post subject: Please support this petition NOW. Reply with quote

Fellow ActivistChat Members,
Please sign and support this petition NOW.
Supporting the Tehran university students and professors outrage towards Islamist regime attack ON CENTER OF ACADEMIC EXCELLENCE and their demands for Regime Change, FREE Society, Secular Democracy and respect for human rights should be supported by everyone and all free world leaders NOW. The Tehran University is the home to many brave freedom-loving students who lost their life in the cause of freedom. It is the irony of history that in the land of Cyrus The Great, the birthplace of the first charter of the “Rights of Nations” and the “Declaration of Human Rights” , Darius The Great, Babak, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Ferdowsi, Khayyam, Hafaz, Saadi and Rumi with over 7000 years heritage ruled by a small group of Islamic Mafia Clerics who are the embodiment of evil and have no respect for Human Rights and these virus of Iranian society have taken 70 million as their hostages and control the society by terror and fear.

Long before Sept. 11 the Iranian people have started the War Of Idea and War On Terror against Islamist repression and terror without much support from free world, over 100,000 political executions … are the best proven facts in past 27 years .
One of the most brilliant mind of our time Andrei Sakharov (1921-1989) father of Soviet H Bomb and father of freedom movement in Russia and Human rights activist saw the direct connection between human rights violation at home, fear society, terror state and International terrorism outside but this is ignored by free world leaders appeasers in the name of short term National Interest.
We should remind the free world leaders and freedom-loving people of world again “To sin by silence, when we should protest, Makes cowards out of men.”

Regards,
Cyrus
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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 7:08 pm    Post subject: University of Tehran History Reply with quote

University of Tehran (Harvad Of Iran Under Mullahs Control)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from Tehran University)
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دانشگاه تهران


The University of Tehran
Motto = The Mother University
Established = 1934
Chancellor = ???????????
Enrollment = 32,000
Undergrad = 29,000
Graduate = 3,000
Faculty = 1,500
Athletics = 22 teams
http://www.ut.ac.ir


Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran_University




UT College of Social Sciences. The campus architecture is inspired by early 20th century European designs, and yet has influences from the architecture of Persian antiquity.
The University of Tehran (دانشگاه تهران in Persian), also known as Tehran University, is the oldest and largest university of Iran (Persia).



Tehran University, with 32000 students, is Iran's largest university.

The university is highly prestigious and is among the first options of applicants in the annual nationwide entrance exam for top Iranian universities. The school also admits students from all over the world and is known for its wide-ranging fields of research. Many alumni of the university end up among the nation's political elite.

The University has over 1500 faculty, 3500 staff, and 32000 students plus 340 foreign students. UT offers 116 bachelor degrees, 160 masters degrees, and 120 Ph.D. degrees.



History

The history of the establishment of universities in Iran and the University of Tehran in particular dates back to the year 1851 and the establishment of Dar al-Funun. In 1928, Professor Mahmoud Hessaby proposed the establishment of a center which could cover most of the sciences to Ali Asghar Hekmat, the then Minister of Culture.


Tehran University, with 32000 students, is Iran's largest university.In January 1933, during the cabinet meeting, the subject was discussed. Ali Asghar Hekmat, the acting minister of the Ministry of Education stated the following words there:

Of course, there is no doubt on the thriving state and the glory of the capital, but the only obvious deficiency is that this city has no “ university”. It is a pity that this city lags far behind other great countries of the world.
His words had a profound impact on everyone in the meeting, resulting in the acceptance of the proposal. Thus allocating an initial budget of 250,000 Tomans, the Ministry of Education was authorized to find a suitable land for the establishment of the university and take necessary measures to construct the building as soon as possible.

Immediately, Ali Asghar Hekmat in collaboration and consultation with Andre Gaudar, a French skillful architect - who was serving the Ministry of Education as an engineer, began looking for a suitable location for the University grounds. By the orders of Reza Shah, the compound of Jalaliyeh garden was selected. Jalaliyeh garden was located in the north of the then Tehran between Amirabad village and the northern trench of Tehran. This beautiful garden, full of orchards was founded in the early 1900s during the final years of Nasir ad- Din Shah, by the order of Prince Jalal ad-dawlah.

The master plan of the institute was drawn up by Andre Gaudar, Markov, Maxim Cierro, and Mauser. The influences of early 20th century modernist architecture is still readily visible on the main campus grounds of the University today.

The University of Tehran officially inaugurated in 1934. The Amir-abad (North Karegar) campus was added in 1945 after American troops left the property as WWII was coming to an end.


Campuses
At present, UT is comprised of 40 faculties, institutes, and centers of research and education. The university consists of six campuses:

The main campus on Enghelab Ave.
North Kargar Campus
Karaj Campus
Varamin Campus
Qum Campus
Choka Campus
[edit]
Faculties

The Tehran University gates appear on the 500 Rial bill of Iran's currency. They were designed by a UT student to symbolize science and wisdom.Initially University of Tehran included six faculties:

Engineering

Natural Science and Mathematics
Literature, Philosophy and Pedagogical Sciences
Medicine and related sciences
Jurisprudence, Political and Economic Sciences
Theology
Later more faculties were founded:

Fine Arts (1941)
Veterinary Medicine (1943)
Agriculture(1945)
Business Administration (1954)
Education (1954)
Natural Resources (1963)
Economics (1970)
Foreign Languages (1989)
Environmental Studies (1992)
Faculty of Physical Education
In 1992, the faculties of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmacology seceded to become the Tehran University of Medical Sciences but is still located in same place as before, which is called The centeral Pardis.


Institutions
University of Tehran also co-ordinates four major institutions:

The Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics
The Institute of Geophysics
The International Research Center for Coexistence with Deserts
History of Science Research Center
The Institute of Geophysics is responsible for authoring the Lunar and Solar calendars each year (headed by Dr. Iraj Malekpour), and registers all tremors and earthquakes in Iran.


The emblem

The official emblem of the University of Tehran

The emblem of the University of Tehran has been modeled after this stucco relief discovered in CtesiphonThe emblem of the University of Tehran, which was designed by Dr. Mohsen Moghadam, a late faculty member of the Faculty of Fine Arts, is based on an image, which can be found in the stucco relief and seals of the Sasanid period. In this case, it is a copy from a stucco relief discovered in the city of Ctesiphon.

The seal symbolized ownership. In the Sasanid period, these seals were used in stucco reliefs, coins, and silver utensils as a family symbol. Since the alphabet of Sasanid Pahlavi’s script was used in these badges, they have the nature of a monogram as well.

The motif is placed between two eagle wings. One can also find these motifs in other images of this period, such as in royal crowns, particularly at the end of the Sasanid period. Crowns with these seals have been called “two-feather crowns” in The Shahnameh. The motif between the wings was made by combining Pahlavi scripts. Some scholars have tried to read these images. The script is in the form of “Afzoot” (Amrood), which means plentiful and increasing.


The emblem of the University of Tehran has been modeled after this stucco relief discovered in Ctesiphon

Political Role

UT's central mosque has been a center for religious and political activity in Tehran during the past 30 years.Perhaps, to the westerner, the University of Tehran is most notably remembered for its key roles in the political events of recent history. It was in front of the same gates of this school that The Shah's army opened fire on dissident students, further triggering the 1979 revolution of Iran.

It was there that dissident students confronted the soldiers once again, 20 years later in July of 1999. (see Iran student protests, July 1999) This pro-democracy demonstration described by Time Magazine reporter as "Tienanmen of Iran".

UT has always been a bastion of political movement and ideology. At UT the leaders of the current regime deliver their most potent speeches on every Friday. Odds are thatwhere future political events will perhaps unfold.

Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the main campus of the university and its surrounding streets have been the site for Tehran's Friday prayers.

The political role of Tehran University in the Iranian domestic arena has become so pronounced that in November 2005 a cleric became chancellor of the university, replacing Dr. Faraji-dana. Ayatollah Abbasali Amid Zanjani (عباسعلی عميد زنجانی) holds no academic degree, and is known for his strong ties to Khomeini in the revolution. This is the first time ever that Iran's clerical establishment replaces the traditional academia to head a major academic institution. He has however written several books and has served on the faculty of the College of Law as an expert on Islamic Jurisprudence.(source: BBC Persian)


People

Many of UT's faculty end up as ministers and presidential advisors. Notable examples are Jamshid Amuzegar, Ali Akbar Velayati, Mir-Hossein Mousavi, Manuchehr Eghbal, Mohammad Taddayon, Mohammad Khatami, Mostafa Moeen, Kamal Kharrazi, and Mohammad Reza Aref. Other notables are:

Professor Hossein Gol-e-Golab, botanist, musician, and linguist who served on the Faculty of Medicine and was a member of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature.
Professor Lotfi Zadeh the father of Fuzzy Logic is a graduate of Tehran University.
In 2003, Shirin Ebadi a graduate and a professor of law at the university received the Nobel Prize for Peace.
The renowned movie director Abbas Kiarostami studied in the Faculty of Arts of this school.
Mahmoud Hessabi was one of the founders of the university, and Iran's Father of Physics.
The world famous Islamologist Sayyed Hosein Nasr, was Dean of Faculty, and Academic Vice-Chancellor of the University from 1968 to 1972.
Yousef Sobouti, founder of IASBS, is an alumnus of this university.


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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 7:44 pm    Post subject: Who Is Professor Lotfi Zadeh graduate of Tehran University? Reply with quote

Who Is Professor Lotfi Zadeh the father of Fuzzy Logic is a graduate of Tehran University?

Father of Fuzzy Logic Professor Lotfi Asker Zadeh


Professional Biography
The "father of fuzzy logic," is a very prominent scientist, engineer and system theorist.

He was born in Baku, Azerbayejan in 1921. He finished high school at Alborz International High School, Tehran, Iran, in 1938 and received his B.S. degree in engineering from the University of Tehran in 1942, his M.S. from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1946, and his Doctor of Electrical Engineering from Columbia University in 1949. He has served as a faculty member at both Columbia University and the University of California-Berkeley. He retired from UC-Berkeley in 1990, where he is now Director of UC Berkeley Initiative on Soft Computing.

He is affiliated with 30 journals, including honorary editor of Intelligent Automation and Soft Computing (AutoSoft Press, 1995). He received the Paul-Sabatier University Honorary Doctorate in 1986, and Japan's Honda Award in 1989. He is a Guggenheim Fellow (1967-6Cool, a member of the National Academy of Engineering (1973), and a Fellow of the IRE (IEEE) in 1958, and received the IEEE Education Medal in 1973, the IEEE Centennial Medal in 1984, the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal in 1992, ASME's Rufus Oldenburger Award in 1993, and the IEEE Medal of Honor in 1994.


------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lotfi Asker Zadeh World of Computer Science Biography

http://www.bookrags.com/biography-lotfi-asker-zadeh-wcs/

Lotfi Asker Zadeh, who described himself in an interview with Jeanne Spriter James as an "American, mathematically oriented, electrical engineer of Iranian descent, born in Russia," is responsible for the development of fuzzy logic and fuzzy set theory. Zadeh is also known for his research in system theory, information processing, artificial intelligence, expert systems, natural language understanding, and the theory of evidence. His first two papers that set forth the fuzzy theories, "Fuzzy Sets" and "Outline of a New Approach to the Analysis of Complex Systems and Decision Processes," have been listed as "Citation Classics" by the Citation Index, a publication that counts and lists those papers which have been cited most often in the writings of others. Zadeh received the prestigious Honda Prize--an award that was introduced in 1977 to honor technology that advances a "humane civilization"--from the Honda Foundation in Japan in 1989. That same ye.....

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dr. Zadeh has single-authored over two hundred papers and serves on the editorial boards of over fifty journals. He is a member of the Advisory Committee, Center for Education and Research in Fuzzy Systems and Artificial Intelligence, Iasi, Romania; Senior Advisory Board, International Institute for General Systems Studies; the Board of Governors, International Neural Networks Society; and is the Honorary President of the Biomedical Fuzzy Systems Association of Japan and the Spanish Association for Fuzzy Logic and Technologies. In addition, he is a member of the Advisory Board of the National Institute of Informatics, Tokyo; a member of the Governing Board, Knowledge Systems Institute, Skokie, IL; and an honorary member of the Academic Council of NAISO-IAAC.

Professor in the Graduate School and Director, Berkeley Initiative in Soft Computing (BISC), Computer Science Division, Department of EECS, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-l776; Telephone: 5l0-642-4959; Fax: 5l0-642-l7l2; E-mail: zadeh@eecs.berkeley.edu http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~zadeh/

Research supported in part by ONR N00014-02-1-0294, BT Grant CT1080028046, Omron Grant, Tekes Grant and the BISC Program of UC Berkeley.


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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 7:59 pm    Post subject: Ctesiphon Reply with quote

The official emblem of the University of Tehran

The emblem of the University of Tehran has been modeled after this stucco relief discovered in CtesiphonThe emblem of the University of Tehran, which was designed by Dr. Mohsen Moghadam, a late faculty member of the Faculty of Fine Arts, is based on an image, which can be found in the stucco relief and seals of the Sasanid period. In this case, it is a copy from a stucco relief discovered in the city of Ctesiphon.

The seal symbolized ownership. In the Sasanid period, these seals were used in stucco reliefs, coins, and silver utensils as a family symbol. Since the alphabet of Sasanid Pahlavi’s script was used in these badges, they have the nature of a monogram as well.

The motif is placed between two eagle wings. One can also find these motifs in other images of this period, such as in royal crowns, particularly at the end of the Sasanid period. Crowns with these seals have been called “two-feather crowns” in The Shahnameh. The motif between the wings was made by combining Pahlavi scripts. Some scholars have tried to read these images. The script is in the form of “Afzoot” (Amrood), which means plentiful and increasing.


The emblem of the University of Tehran has been modeled after this stucco relief discovered in Ctesiphon
_____________________________________________________


Ctesiphon (Parthian: Tyspwn as well as Tisfun)


Ctesiphon (Tâgh-i Kasrâ). Drawn 1824 by Captain Hart.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Jump to: navigation, search
Ctesiphon (Parthian: Tyspwn as well as Tisfun) is one of the great cities of ancient Mesopotamia and the capital of the Iranian Parthian Empire and its successor, the Sassanid Empire, for more than 800 years located in ancient Iranian province of Khvarvaran.

Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesiphon

Located approximately 20 miles southeast of the modern city of Baghdad, along the river Tigris, it rose to prominence along with the Parthian Empire in the first century BC, and was the seat of government for most of its rulers. Ctesiphon measured 30 square kilometers (cf. the 13,7 square kilometers of imperial Rome).

Because of its importance, Ctesiphon was a major military objective for the leaders of the Roman Empire in its eastern wars. The city was captured by Roman or Byzantine forces five times in its history, three times in the second century alone. The emperor Trajan captured Ctesiphon in 116, after one year of occupation his successor Hadrian has no choice to returned it in 117 as part of a peace settlement. The Roman general Avidius Cassius captured Ctesiphon during another Parthian war in 164, but abandoned it when peace was concluded. In 197, the emperor Septimius Severus sacked Ctesiphon and carried off thousands of its inhabitants, possibly as many as 100,000, whom he sold into slavery.


Ruins of Ctesiphon depicted on a 1923 postage stamp of IraqLate in the third century, after the Parthians had been supplanted by the Sassanids, the city again became a source of conflict with Rome. In 295, Galerius was defeated by the Persians outside the city. Humiliated, he returned a year later and won a tremendous victory which ended in the fourth and final capture of the city by a Roman army. He returned it to the Persian king Narses in exchange for Armenia.

Finally, in 627, the eastern Roman emperor Heraclius took the city, then capital of the Sassanid empire, leaving it after the Persians accepted his peace terms.

Ctesiphon fell to the Arabs during the Islamic conquest of Iran in 637 and went into a rapid decline, especially after the founding of the Abbasid capital at Baghdad in the 8th century. It is believed to be the basis for the city of Isbanir in the Thousand and One Nights.

The ruins of Ctesiphon were the site of a major battle of World War I in November of 1915. The Ottoman Empire defeated troops of Britain attempting to capture Baghdad, and drove them back some 40 miles before trapping the British force and compelling it to surrender.


The splendor of Khosrau's palace (Shâhigân-ǐ Sepid = the white palace, later Taq-i Kasra) at Ctesiphon is legendary. The Throne room was more than 110 ft high. The massive barrel vault covered an area 80ft wide by 160 ft long.

The arch of Ctesiphon, or Taq-e Kasra, is now all that remains of a city that was, for seven centuries, the main capital of the successor dynasties of the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanians. The structure left today was the main portico of the audience hall of the Sassanians who maintained the same site chosen by the Parthians and for the same reason, namely proximity to the Roman Empire whose expansionist aims could be better contained at the point of contact.

Taq-e Kasra (Vault of Khosrow/Khosrau) in the today's Iraqi city of Mada'en (also referred to as Iwan-e Mada'en and, in earlier times by Europeans, as Madayn) near the capital Baghdad is on the verge of collapse. The world-famous monument known as the largest and most unique vault ever constructed in Persia, during the reign of Sassanid dynasty, has been greatly neglected in recent times.
____________________________________________________
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Archaeology/ctesiphon.htm

IRANIAN WORLD CTESIPHON (TISFUN)
The Imperial Capital of Parthian & Sasanian Dynasties



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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 8:32 pm    Post subject: Khaghani famous poem Reply with quote

Mullahs Did Not Learn From History


Khaghani famous poem is Eyvan Madaen (that is a long & beautiful poem describe this big palace & university).

Remember Khaghani, the poet from Shirvan? Remember his lament Aivan-e Mada'en, which, in Arabized form (Mada'en standing for the cities that composed the Sasanian capital at Ctesiphon-on-Tigris) denotes Taq-e Kasra, the main portico of the imperial palace. A poignant expression of regret at the loss of Sasanian Iran, with a heartrending 'Aaah', as though words, no matter how rich and expressive – and he had a great store of vocabulary -, could never be enough to express what he felt. Those of us old enough to have studied his verse, in our early schooldays, would have learnt it by heart. So then why do we not see a word written by Iranians in Iran or outside to express any concern about what might have befallen the one remaining arch (and a slice of façade) of this symbolic site?
Source: http://www.iranian.com/FSFF/2003/April/Arch/p.html
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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 9:01 pm    Post subject: History of ancient Medicine in Mesopotamia & Iran Reply with quote

History of ancient Medicine in Mesopotamia & Iran
By: Massoume Price, October 2001
Source:
http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/ancient_medicine_mesopotamia_iran.php


cience including medicine has a long history in Middle and Near East and goes back to the ancient Mesopotamian period (Beginning with Sumer 3000BC). There are many cuneiform tablets from cities as ancient as Uruk (2500 BC). The bulk of the tablets that do mention medical practices have survived from the library of Asshurbanipal at Nineveh (668BC) Assyria. So far 660 medical tablets from this library and 420 tablets from the library of a medical practitioner from Neo-Assyrian period, as well as Middle Assyrian and Middle Babylonian texts have been published. The vast majority of these tablets are prescriptions, but there are a few series of tablets that have been labeled "treatises". One of the oldest and the largest collections is known as "Treatise of Medical Diagnosis and Prognoses." The text consists of 40 tablets collected and studied by the French scholar R. Labat. Although the oldest surviving copy of this treatise dates to around 1600 BC, the information contained in the text is an amalgamation of several centuries of Mesopotamian medical knowledge. The diagnostic treatise is organized in head to toe order with separate subsections covering convulsive disorders, gynecology and pediatrics. To the non-specialist they sound like magic and sorcery. However, the descriptions of diseases demonstrate accurate observation skills. Virtually all expected diseases exist, they are described and cover neurology, fevers, worms and flukes, venereal disease and skin lesions. The medical texts are essentially rational, and some of the treatments, (such as excessive bleeding) are essentially the same as modern treatments for the same condition.

Mesopotamian diseases are often blamed on pre-existing spirits: gods, ghosts, etc., and each spirit was held responsible for only one disease in any one part of the body. Ancient mythologies tell stories of diseases that were put in the world by supernatural forces. One such figure was Lamashtu the daughter of the supreme god Anu, a terrible she-demon of disease and death. It was also recognized that various organs could simply malfunction, causing illness. Medicinal remedies used as cures were specifically used to treat the symptoms of the disease, and are clearly distinguished from mixes or plants used as offerings to such spirits.

There were two distinct types of professional medical practitioners in ancient Mesopotamia. The first type of practitioner is called ashipu, who in older texts is identified as a sorcerer or the witch doctor. One of the most important roles of the ashipu was to diagnose the ailment. In the case of internal diseases or difficult cases the ashipu determined which god or demon was causing the illness. He also attempted to determine if the disease was the result of some error or sin on the part of the patient. He prescribed charms and spells that were designed to drive out the spirit causing the disease. The ashipu could also refer the patient to a different type of healer called an asu. He was a specialist in herbal remedies, and in texts is frequently called "physician" because he dealt with empirical applications of medication. For example in case of wounds the asu applied washing, bandaging, and making plasters. The knowledge of the asu in making plasters is of particular interest.

Many of the ancient plasters (a mixture of medicinal ingredients applied to a wound often held on by a bandage) seem to have had some helpful benefits. For instance, some of the more complicated plasters called for the heating of plant resin or animal fat with alkali. This particular mixture when heated yields soap which would have helped to ward off bacterial infection. The two practitioners worked together and at times could function in both capacities.

Another textual source of evidence concerning the skills of Mesopotamian physicians comes from the Law Code of Hammurabi (1700 BC). There are several texts showing the liability of physicians who performed surgery. These laws state that a doctor was to be held responsible for surgical errors and failures. Since the laws only mention liability in connection with "the use of a knife," it can be assumed that doctors were not liable for any non-surgical mistakes or failed attempts to cure an ailment. According to these laws, both the successful surgeon's compensation and the failed surgeon's liability were determined by the status of his patient. Therefore, if a surgeon operated and saved the life of a person of high status, the patient was to pay a lot more as compared to saving the life of a slave. However, if a person of high status died as a result of surgery, the surgeon risked having his hand cut off. If a slave died the surgeon only had to pay enough to replace the slave. At least four clay tablets have survived that describe a specific surgical procedure. Three are readable, one seems to describe a procedure in which the asu cuts into the chest of the patient in order to drain pus from the pleura. The other two surgical texts belong to the collection of tablets entitled "Prescriptions for Diseases of the Head." One of these texts mentions the knife of the asu scraping the skull of the patient. The final surgical tablet mentions the postoperative care of a surgical wound. This tablet recommends the application of a dressing consisting mainly of sesame oil, which acted as an anti-bacterial agent.

It is hard to identify some of the drugs mentioned in the tablets. Often the asu used metaphorical names for common drugs, such as "lion's fat" (much as we use the terms "tiger Lilly" or "baby's breath"). Of the drugs that have been identified, most were plant extracts, resins, or spices. Many of the plants incorporated into the asu medicinal repertoire had antibiotic properties, while several resins and many spices have some antiseptic value, and would mask the smell of a malodorous wound. Beyond these benefits, it is important to keep in mind that both the pharmaceuticals and the actions of the ancient physicians must have carried a strong placebo effect. Patients undoubtedly believed that the doctors were capable of healing them. Therefore, visiting the doctor psychologically could reinforce the notion of health and wellness. Temples belonging to gods and goddesses of healing were also used for health care. Gula was one of the more significant gods of healing. The excavations of such temples do not show signs that patients were housed at the temple while they were treated (as was the case with the later temples of Asclepius in Greece). However these temples were sites for the diagnosis of illness and contained libraries that held many useful medical texts. The primary center for health care was the home. The majority of health care was provided at the patient's own house, with the family acting as care givers. Outside of the home, other important sites for religious healing were nearby rivers. These people believed that the rivers had the power to care away evil substances and forces that were causing the illness. Sometimes a small hut was set up either near the home or the river to aid the patient and their families.

While many of the basic tenants of medicine, such as bandaging and the collection of medical texts, began in Mesopotamia, other cultures developed these practices independently. In Mesopotamia many of the ancient techniques became extinct after surviving for thousands of years. It was Egyptian medicine that seems to have had the most lasting influence on the later development of medicine, through the medium of the Greeks. In the fifth century BC the Greek historian and traveler Herodotus commented on current medical practices in Egypt; "the art of healing is with them divided up, so that each physician treats one ailment and no more. Egypt is full of physicians, some treating diseases of the eyes, others the head, others the teeth, others the stomach and others unspecified diseases".

The ancient Egyptian texts of the Old Kingdom (2635-2155 BC) contain at least 50 physicians, mainly from their names on tombs. The later periods also give detailed information about physicians and their practice. Though most physicians were men, female physicians existed as well. The title ‘Lady Director of Lady Physicians’ proves the existence of a group of women who practised as doctors. Physicians were literate, some were scribes and others were priests at the same time. Most inherited the profession from their fathers but needed to be trained in the field. The profession was organised hierarchically with the Chief Physician at the top and lesser titles following, such as Master of Physicians, Director of Physicians, Inspector of Physicians, Plain Physicians and auxiliaries such as Bandage personnel etc. Texts deal with diagnosis, treatments and prescriptions. Surgery and mummification processes used by ancient Egyptians still amazes the modern experts. All major and expected diseases are known and treated, ailments are attributed to spirits, ghosts and revenge by gods and goddesses. Texts dealing with gynaecology cover fertility, sterility, pregnancy, contraception and abortion. Women were tested to decide whether they could conceive or not. However the Egyptians were behind Babylonian doctors who had gone further and designed the first pregnancy tests known in history. This test involved placing in the women’s vagina a tampon impregnated with the juice of various plants in a solution of alum. This was left in position either overnight or for three days. Pregnancy or non-pregnancy was indicated by colour changes between red and green. The test used the pH value of the woman’s secretions in vagina to determine pregnancy. Rational thinking and sound medical observation were used alongside magic and sorcery. Magic was based on the assumption that an object with certain qualities, or an action of a certain kind, could be used to create sympathetic action (healing) or to repel something evil. Magical elements were included in medical texts and were added to the prescriptions and medicines appropriate for treatment of diseases. Some conditions like sterility and impotence in men used magic extensively while other easier ailments relied mainly on medicinal treatments. Heart was extensively studied with arteries however it is not clear if they fully understood the circulation of blood. In fact heart was considered to be the organ of reason instead of the brain though this later organ was extensively studied as well. Anatomy was well understood and dissection was a common procedure.

There are many medical papyri providing detailed descriptions of surgical procedures and other topics related to medicine. The collections are massive and medical knowledge is organised and detailed. Such organisation of knowledge is a prerequisite for major advances in science. Indeed Greeks made extensive use of Egyptian science and medicine and created their own school of medicine that dominated the ancient civilisations for centuries to come. By the time Hippocrates began his scientific medicine in his native city Cos, the city was already the headquarters of the Asclepiadae, a professional association of physicians under the patronage of Asclepius, the god of healing. They were all familiar with Mesopotamian and Egyptian medical knowledge and used such texts extensively. However the Greeks based medicine on empirical knowledge and separated the supernatural from the scientific information.

The first major Iranian dynasty Achaemenid (550 BC) promoted the development of culture and science extensively. The great scholars such as the philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus, the Babylonian astronomer Kidinnu and even the historian Herodotus were Persian subjects. The ancient cultures of the Egyptians, Babylonians, Elamites, and others continued to exist and develop. Babylonian Physicians were all over the territories and served all people including Persians. Xenophon relates that when the Greek soldiers who served under Cyrus the younger passed through the territory of Babylonia, they found sufficient number of Physicians even in the villages to treat the wounded warriors. Texts describe how physicians used medicine, prayers and magic, they would often model images of evil spirits out of clay and shatter them, in order to restore the invalid to health.

Achaemenid made Babylon one of their major capitals and extensively used the texts at the temple libraries. The library and museum at the Persepolis was build to rival the Babylonian archives famous in the ancient world. Greek and Egyptian physicians were invited to join the Achaemenid court and served the royal household. Persians also adopted the tradition of paying the physicians according to the rank and gender. The archives at Persepolis indicate that physicians and midwives who delivered boys were paid double the amount they got when the baby delivered was a girl. The records do not indicate severe punishments if the sick person died, as was the case under Hammurabi. Texts also show lists of plants, herbs and other substances used for medicinal purposes. Drugs are taken internally; mercury, antimony, arsenic, sulfur and animal fats are also prescribed. All are basically the same as Babylonian medicine and prescriptions.

At one point Darius orders a representative to return to Egypt in order to restore the department of the ruined house of life dealing with medicine; " While his majesty was in Elam he ordered me (Udjahorresne) to return to Egypt. I gave them every useful thing and all their instruments indicated by the writings, as they had been before. His majesty did this because he knew the virtue of this art to make every sick man recover". The subsequent Seleucid and Parthian dynasties followed the same trends with more Greek influence science and art due to massive presence of Greeks in the area. However the flourishing of science and technology happened in the Sassanian period with major centers of learning and the famous university Jundaishapur.

The Sassanian king, Khosrow Anoshirvan is mentioned by many historians and biographers to have been a major promoter of all sciences including philosophy and medicine. In a Pahlavi text (Karnamag) he is quoted the following; "We have made inquiries about the rules of the inhabitants of the Roman Empire and the Indian states. We have never rejected anybody because of their different religion or origin. We have not jealously kept away from them what we affirm. And at the same time we have not disdained to learn what they stand for. For it is a fact that to have knowledge of the truth and of sciences and to study them is the highest thing with which a king can adorn himself. And the most disgraceful thing for kings is to disdain learning and be ashamed of exploring the sciences. He who does not learn is not wise".

Greek Philosophers Syriac speaking Christians and Nestorian Christians fleeing persecution by Byzantine rulers were received by Anoshirvan and were commissioned to translate Greek and Syriac texts into Pahlavi. Paul the Persian dedicated Works of logic to the king. The Greek philosopher Priscianus Lydus wrote a book in response to the king’s questions on a number of subjects in Aristotelian physics, theory of the soul, meteorology and biology. The Sassanian religious text, Dinkard shows familiarity with all these topics, especially Aristotelian physics. It is apparent from the text that Aristotle’s famous article ‘On Coming to be and Passing away’ was well known by the compilers of Dinkard. Becoming, decay and transformation the three fundamental concepts in the article are mentioned and discussed. Pahlavi texts also indicate that the doctors were paid according to the rank of the patient. Books in medicine, astronomy, Almagest (by Ptolemy), Aristotle’s Organon and a number of texts in crafts and skills were translated from Greek. Syrian Christians in particular played a significant part in communicating Greek sciences and knowledge to the Persians.

The famous university and the hospital at Jundaishapur built earlier reached its peak at Anoshirvan’s time. The Muslim historian Qifiti (12/13th century AD) in his book ‘History of Learned Men’ quotes the following; "In the twentieth year of the reign of Khosrow II (Anoshirvan) the physicians of Jundaishapur assembled for a scientific symposium by order of the king. Their debates were recorded. This memorable session took place under the presidency of Jibril Durustabad, the physician in ordinary to Khosrow, in the presence of Sufista’i and his colleagues, together with Yuhanna and a large number of other medical men". It is likely that the medical teaching resembled those at Alexandria with some influence from Antioch. This hospital and the medical center were to become the model on which all-later Islamic Medical Schools and hospitals were to be built. Earlier Muslim historians such as Maqdisi (10th century) mention the medical school in Khuzistan and name it’s famous associates and practitioners. The famous writer and translator, Burzoy who translated the Indian book of fables the Panchatantra (later, Kalila wa-Dimna) for Anoshirvan was also a well-known physician from Nishapur. The first recorded Muslim Physician Harith bin Kalada had studied at Jundaishapur Medical School. In Jundaishapur Greek, Indian and Persian scientific traditions were assimilated. Indian scientific material in astronomy, astrology, mathematics and medicine were also translated into Pahlavi along with Chinese Herbal medicine and religion. The books were kept at the university and the royal libraries and Greek medicine based on works by Hippocrates and Galen dominated the discipline.

The later Muslim historians refer to the Sassanian Imperial library as the House of Knowledge (Bayt al Hikmat). The library functioned as both a place where accounts of Iranian history and literature were transcribed and preserved. At the same time it was a place where qualified hired translators, bookbinders and others worked to preserve, purchase, copy, illustrate, write and translate books. It was such texts that made their way into the Islamic period. Many books in sciences and philosophy were translated by the Persians, Greeks, Syriac and Aramaic-speaking scholars into Arabic and eventually made their way into Muslim Spain and Western Europe. Persia and Byzantium dominated the area before Islam. The later was a continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire and the seat of Greco-Roman art, culture and civilization. Alexandria and Constantinople were major centers of intellectual activities with theaters, libraries and universities. In addition to Major cities like Alexandria Constantinople and Jerusalem, intellectuals and scientists moved and carried ideas from Edessa in the west, through Nisbis and Mosul (Iraq) to Marv and Jundaishapur in Western Persia.

The conquest of Islam in 7th century united east and west, improved trade and boasted book publishing by introducing advanced paper making techniques from China. However major cities and libraries were destroyed, Arabic eventually became the universal language of the empire and forced conversions into Islam threatened national identities and local cultures. The Imperial library at Ctesiphon was lost; the whole city was totally destroyed and never rose again. The destruction of such major libraries with the rise of Arabic language made it clear to the scholars and intellectuals that all pre-Islamic knowledge and national identities were in danger of total destruction and they had to be preserved. Massive and heroic efforts were made and the result was the formation of a dynamic and significant translation movement for almost two hundred years till 10th century. The movement started in Damascus in Umayyad times and flourished in Abbasid Baghdad (754 AD). All major surviving Greek Syriac Persian and Indian texts were translated into Arabic and Neo Persian. Pre-Abbasid translations from Pahlavi included major religious, literary, scientific and historical texts. Nawbakht the court astrologer and his son Abu Sahl and other colleagues Farazi and Tabari and many others sponsored by the Barmakid family (the chief ministers to the early Abbasids who were murdered later) translated and promoted Pahlavi texts into Arabic and Neo-Persian. They were all Iranians and aimed to incorporate Sassanian culture into Abbasid ideology and guarantee the continuity of the Iranian heritage. Christian and Jewish learned families of Sassanian Persia such as Bukhtishu and Hunyan families were also great translators of Syriac Greek Pahlavi and other texts into Arabic. Both families had served at Jundaishapur University for generations and were instrumental in founding the Adudi Hospital and Medical School in Baghdad.

The Nestorian physician, Jabrail ibn Bakhtishu was the head of the Jundaishapur University when he was called to Baghdad in 148 AD as the court physician to Caliph al-Mansur. He was later charged with building the first hospital (Bimarestan or Maristan) in the city based on the Syro-Persian model already established at Jundaishapur. He went back to Iran but many members of his family served the Abbasids for a long time.

Baghdad, a suburb of Ctesiphon was built in 762 by al-Mansur. The Royal library at Baghdad was based on the Sassanian model and was also called the house of knowledge (Bayt al-Hikmat) and like the Persian royal library became a center of learning and attracted scientists and intellectuals alike and many of its’ directors were either Iranian or from Iranian descent. Baghdad itself became hire to the Alexandrian and Persian scientific traditions and thought. The ‘Adudi’ hospital was built under the instructions of the great Iranian Physician Razi (Latin Rhazes, he was from Ray) and resembled the great hospital in Jundaishapur. It is said that in order to select the best site for the hospital he had pieces of meat hung in various quarters of the city and watched their putrefaction and chose the site where the putrefaction was the slowest and the least. At its inception it had 24 physicians on staff including specialists categorized as Physiologists, oculists, surgeons and bonesetters. Various historians have mentioned that the hospital was ‘like a great castle’ with water supply from the Tigris and all appurtenances of Royal Palaces.

Medicine remained dominated by the Greek tradition, the first to rid the science from supernatural powers and spirits. Around 450 BC, the Italian-born Greek natural philosopher and physician Alcmaeon began forwarding the new theory that disease was caused by a fundamental imbalance in the body between certain opposed qualities, such as heat and cold (sardi/garmi), or wetness and dryness (tari/khoshki). This theory was picked up and elaborated by Hippocrates (460-377BC) who completely disregarded the presumption of the spiritual causes of disease. He proposed that health resulted from the equal influence of four bodily "humours" that was analogous to the four elements of Greek physics (earth, water, air and fire). Blood, phlegm, and two kinds of bile were associated with four major organs heart, brain, liver and spleen – and with the four seasons and the four ages of man: childhood, youth, maturity and old age. Deviations from perfect balance among the four produced diseases. Therapies consisted of attempting to restrain the overactive humour while encouraging the others.

Five centuries latter the great Greek physician, Galen (130-200AD) concluded that blood was manufactured in the liver from material provided by the stomach. He also posited two other systems of essential fluid. One originated in the heart and was carried by the arteries. The other ‘anima’ (soul or the life principle) proceeded from the brain by way of the nerve tracts. Though none are correct nevertheless Galen’s meticulous anatomical studies and logical method provided a point of departure for the development of modern medicine. Once this Greek heritage and knowledge was translated into Arabic it became universal and replaced most of the older traditions and schools. Greek, Persian, Arab and Indian scholars refined the assimilated ideas and by the 12th century slow progress was made toward understanding the organic cause of disease. The brilliant Iranian scientist Raze (845-925 AD) distilled alcohol and clearly distinguished smallpox from measles.

The celebrated Iranian physician and philosopher Abu Ali Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037) wrote 100 books in many subjects including his most famous compendium, Canon of Medicine. His magnum opus is one of the classics of medicine ever written. He extensively studied herbal medicine from China, India and Persia. Avicenna like his predecessor Farabi (another well known Iranian) was an outspoken empiricist and insisted that all theories must be confirmed by experience. He argued against the blind acceptance of any authority and improved distillation techniques. Alchemists tried to convert one substance into another in order to make gold. In the process they uncovered a host of medicinal compounds and improved distillation and sublimation techniques. Another major Greek tradition based on theories of Plato and Euclid on light opened the way to the science of optics. Human eye became the focus of study and major advances were made and eye care was improved. The Jewish Physician Masawayh practicing at Jundaishapur joined the medical school at Baghdad at the invitation of Caliph Harun-ul-Rashid and wrote a detailed book on Ophthalmology. Masawayh family produced three more prominent physicians with the most famous, Yuhanna ibn Masawayh, who wrote prolifically and 42 works are attributed to him. Another great Jewish physician who had served at Jundaishapur was Hunain ibn Ishaq. He translated entire collection of Greek medical works including Galen and Hippocrates. His original contributions included 10 works on ophthalmology. He was appointed the director of the royal library by Caliph al Mutawakkil. Tabbari another major physician migrated from Persia to Baghdad in the first half of the 9th century AD. His major work called ‘Paradise of Wisdom’ contained extensive information from all extant sources including Greek, Syriac, Persian and Indian and contained an extensive treatment of Anatomy.

Like their Greek predecessors the new genre of physicians produced Encyclopedias of medical knowledge based on observation and experience. The main topics included anatomy, classification and causation of disease, symptoms and diagnosis. Urine, sputum, saliva and pulse were observed and used to aid diagnosis. External or visible manifestations of disease and internal symptoms like fever, headache etc were listed and studied. Hygiene was observed dietetics, cosmetics, therapy with drugs and herbs were used to improve the patient’s conditions. Female practitioners and nurses that existed before Islam remained for a while but soon lost their position and only midwives continued and most had no proper training.

The flourishing of sciences and the translation movement did not last long for a number of reasons including foreign military attack. The sciences including medicine were foreign imports as far as many Arabs were concerned and met with opposition from various quarters. From the time when the translation movement began to the end of the Islamic middle ages, these sciences were either frowned upon or openly attacked by practitioners of indigenous religious and Arabic disciplines. Aristotelian logic was rejected and the adherents of the religious tradition of Kalam had no use for Neo-platonic doctrines of the followers of Greek philosophy. The ‘foreign sciences’, which included mathematics, astronomy, medicine, alchemy and astrology were generally felt by religious people to constitute a serious threat to religious beliefs and values of religious life. The influential religious thinker al-Ghazali (he died in 1111AD) wrote a popular refutation of philosophy and repeatedly warned against exposing Muslims to potentially misleading rational sciences and practices.

The Hanbali jurist Ibn Taymiyya (1328) launched a passionate and uncompromising attack on Greek logic. There were defenders as well like Ibn Hazm who maintained a literalist view of Islamic law, but did not openly attack Greek tradition. The other was al-Kindi (870 AD) an Arab aristocrat who supported the Greek scientific tradition which in his time was identified mainly with non-Muslims and non-Arabs. Though the rational sciences remained for a while but at the end they lost specially after the conquest and destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols (1258AD). Medicine along with other sciences was soon to be forgotten and once again magic, superstition and prayers with rudimentary medicine replaced the brilliant scientific traditions. Magicians, sooth-sawyers, exorcists and self-trained herbalists replaced qualified trained medical practitioners and the concept of hospitals faded from the memory. Religious leaders fiercely opposed anatomy and no new knowledge emerged till the advent of modern medicine and importation of European medical knowledge into the Muslim countries in the 19th century.

The second half of the 19th century is the beginning of major political and ideological transformations in Iran and the start of modernization processes. Modern sciences and western ideas of democracy civil society enlightenment human rights and emancipation of women were introduced through translation of European texts into Persian. The Armenians of Isfahan for their exclusive use imported the first printing machine in 1641. However the first printing machine in Persian started work in Tabriz in 1813 and the book industry was changed forever. The first modern school Dar ul Fonoun (the Institute of technology) started work in 1851 with a few European instructors and texts were translated from a number of European languages to introduce Iranian pupils to modern sciences.

Educated Iranians joined and in no time tens of books in Geography, Engineering, Medicine, Military, Biology, Mathematics and other disciplines were translated. The modernization movement resulted in the constitutional revolution (1906) and secularization movement began in the country. Iranian students were sent to Europe with government sponsorship and the first modern doctors were educated in Europe. For the first time since Sassanian period a major University with different faculties was built. In 1934 a new legislation was passed and a budget was allocated to build the first University in Tehran. The medical School at Tehran was the first faculty and soon more modern universities followed in other parts of the country. In 1936 for the first time 12 women were admitted into Tehran University. They entered all faculties, included was Dr. Frough Kia who later joined the faculty of medicine. The medical schools were built on European models and were staffed with qualified educated practitioners and physicians. Nursing schools were followed and new modern hospitals were built throughout the country. In the 1970’s foreign doctors were employed mainly from India and were sent into rural clinics. The medical schools at the major universities enjoyed a high standard and graduates of these universities had no problems continuing postgraduate studies in any of the major medical schools in Europe or North America.

The closure of the universities after the Islamic revolution of the 1979 created havoc and damaged the universities. Once opened, to follow the ‘Muslim first’ policies many highly qualified lectures, teachers and instructors were forced into early retirement and many left voluntarily. With the medical schools there was confusion about the legitimacy of anatomical studies and dissection and whether the practices were acceptable in Islam. Dissecting Muslims was ruled out as unacceptable for a while but was re-instated with caution and bodies of non-Muslims were imported as well mainly from India.

There were attempts to segregate sexes by sending women to female doctors only. However since there are not enough female physicians in the country despite persistence and even legislation the practice has failed. In the second decade after the revolution many new medical schools were established in cities and rural areas. However the standards have remained low with inadequate facilities, management and tutors. Currently too many physicians are trained and some have not been able to find employment in the medical field. Contrary to the earlier Islamic periods empirical and applied sciences have persisted and the medical sciences have remained entirely modern and western oriented.
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PostPosted: Thu Dec 01, 2005 9:15 pm    Post subject: Today, Yesterday and Tomorrow Reply with quote



Past:




Today:




25,000 books of Tehran University ruined in fire
LONDON, November 17 (IranMania) - 25,000 books have been completely destroyed due a fire breaking out this early morning in the reference books? hall of the law faculty of Tehran University, CHN reported.

According to firemen, 80-90% of the hall has been destroyed due to the fire and the books of this sector are completely burnt. The books were an invaluable resource in the field of law and other related branches.

?Although the main vault of the library of the Law faculty has not been destroyed in the accident, the fire spread to the reference books? hall, which according to the authorities contained about 25,000 volumes, has caused a considerable harm,? explained Hamid Arabzadeh, one of the authorities of the fire department of Tehran.

According to Arabzadeh, the library was not equipped with fire alarming system, adding that if it had, the loss damages would have been reduced.

The main cause of the fire is not yet clear.



Tomorrow????
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PostPosted: Fri Dec 02, 2005 2:03 am    Post subject: Student protests erupt in Iran’s capital Reply with quote

Student protests erupt in Iran’s capital

Sun. 27 Nov 2005



http://www.iranfocus.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=4606

Iran Focus

Tehran, Iran, Nov. 27 – Several anti-government student protests erupted in the Iranian capital on Sunday in response to an increasingly harsher government crackdown on campus activists.

Students at the University of Tehran refused to attend classes in the morning and gathered outside the campus library to demonstrate against the appointment of a cleric as the new chief of the university. Ayatollah Amid Zanjani, a notorious religious prosecutor in the 1980s, was installed on Sunday as the new university chancellor. His predecessor, an academic, expressed surprise at “the unprecedented haste over the transition”.

The students chanted, “Appointed head, resign now!” and “Even if we students die, we will not accept humiliation”.

As protests got heated several students pushed the ayatollah and threw his turban off his head.

Iran’s Education Minister Mohammad-Mehdi Zahedi told state television that Zanjani’s appointment was carried out in the framework of the law and under the provisions he had as minister.

Meanwhile, in Amir Kabir University, some 2,000 students rallied against the recent increased government security protocols being run on campus.

Several students who took over the university podium and addressed fellow demonstrators blamed the government for tightening their controls on student actions, and said that on campus security offices had been set up.

Demonstrators also called for an end to indiscriminately suspensions being issued to vocal anti-government students.

Separately, a protest was held by students outside the Economics Department of Allameh Tabatabai University, but was quickly forced back by State Security Forces who prevented demonstrators to move into the main university gates.

There were chants of “They don’t let students into the university” by protestors.
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PostPosted: Wed Dec 14, 2005 12:46 am    Post subject: University Of Tehran Today's Protest Photos Reply with quote

University Of Tehran Today's Protest











Source: http://web.peykeiran.com/new/iran/iran_news_body.aspx?ID=27708
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